RESUMO A alimentação é o fator que mais onera um sistema de produção animal. Assim, a utilização de diferentes estratégias de alimentação dos animais ainda é o grande desafio da nutrição animal, principalmente, levando em consideração as exigências nutricionais de diferentes categorias de ruminantes, em especial bovinos em regiões tropicais, haja vista que a sazonalidade na produção de forragens afeta diretamente a produção bovina, promovendo inadequação no atendimento das exigências nutricionais dos animais principalmente em minerais e vitaminas. Uma alimentação que (...) não atenda as exigências nutricionais dos ruminantes gera prejuízos no sistema de produção, além de, em casos mais graves, ocasionar a perda do animal. Estudos que abordam o efeito e a importância de vitaminas e minerais na nutrição bovina são escassos e necessários. Recentemente a National Research Council (NRC) apresentou novos registros das exigências nutricionais das vitaminas e minerais. Essas alterações proporcionam um impacto econômico significativo em relação à nutrição animal. Nesse sentido, objetivou-se com esta revisão trazer informações acerca de vitaminas e minerais na nutrição de bovinos em pastejo. -/- Palavras-chave: Alimentação animal; forragem; pastagem; requerimentos nutricionais; ruminantes; vitaminas lipossolúveis (Source: AGROVOC). -/- ABSTRACT Animal feed is the factor that most burdens a production system. Thus, the use of different animal feeding strategies is still the great challenge of animal nutrition, taking into account the nutritional requirements of different categories of ruminants, especially cattle in tropical regions, given that seasonality in forage production directly affects cattle production, promoting inadequacy in meeting the nutritional requirements of animals, mainly in minerals and vitamins. A diet that does not meet the nutritional requirements of ruminants generates losses in the production system, in addition to, in more serious cases, causing the loss of the animal. Studies that address the effect and importance of vitamins and minerals in bovine nutrition are scarce and necessary. Recently the National Research Council (NRC) presented new records of the nutritional requirements of vitamins and minerals. These changes provide a significant economic impact on animal nutrition. In this sense, the objective of this review was to bring information about vitamins and minerals in the nutrition of grazing cattle. -/- Keywords: Animal feeding; fat soluble vitamins; forage; nutritional requirements; pasture feeding; ruminants (Source: AGROVOC). -/- REFERÊNCIAS BIBLIOGRÁFICAS -/- 1. Cavalcanti CPL, Silva e Macedo TJ, Gois GC, Menezes VG, Monte APO, Silva AD, Silva DJM, Silva EO, Araújo GGL, Rodrigues RTS, Wischral A, Matos MHT, Queiroz MAA. 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INTRODUÇÃO Segundo Pond (1975), os antepassados mais remotos dos suínos remontam há 40 milhões de anos, e parece que seu parente mais distante é o porco-do-cabo (Orycteropus afer), que viveu na região da Etiópia. Este é da ordem dos tubulidentados com focinho e orelhas alongadas, de hábitos noturnos e que se alimenta de insetos e raízes. Embora não exista um consenso unânime ao respeito, estima-se que a domesticação do porco doméstico atual iniciou-se na Europa entre os anos 7.000 e 3.000 (...) a. C., embora investigadores chineses reivindiquem a origem chinesa do porco doméstico atual que havia iniciado na região sul do país entre o ano 10.000 a. C. Aceita-se que a domesticação tenha se realizado de maneira lenta e progressiva e que os primeiros porcos eram pequenos e estavam em rebanhos pouco numerosos. Os porcos atuais pertencem ao gênero Sus e compreendem os porcos asiáticos (Sus vittatus) de tamanho pequeno; os célticos (Sus scrofa) provenientes do javali europeu e os porcos ibéricos (Sus mediterraneaus) de origem africana, de tamanho maior que os anteriores e introduzidos em todas as regiões do sul da Europa. A capacidade de adaptação do porco às diferentes condições climáticas determinou que sua exploração se realize em todos os continentes e em quase todos os países do mundo, com exceção daqueles onde, por razões de ordem cultural e religiosa, a sua exploração é vedada. O seu caráter cosmopolita está relacionado a sua grande capacidade de adaptação aos variados regimes alimentares, já que sua qualidade de onívoro lhes permite transformar diferentes produtos e subprodutos, alimentando-se tanto de recursos vegetais quanto de animais. Pode ser explorado de forma tradicional com recursos limitados ou de forma intensiva, combinando as mais sofisticadas técnicas de manejo relacionado à alimentação, sanidade, reprodução, transformação e comercialização. POPULAÇÃO MUNDIAL DE SUÍNOS DE RAÇAS LOCAIS Não existem estatísticas diferenciadas para a população mundial de suínos de raças locais. A Organização das Nações Unidas para a Agricultura e Alimentação (FAO), estima que a população mundial de suínos em 2018 foi de 781,3 milhões de cabeças, que compreendem 460 milhões de cabeças na Ásia, 155 milhões na União Europeia, 75 milhões na América do Norte, 70 milhões na América Central e do Sul e 21 milhões de cabeças na África e Oceania. Observe o anexo e o gráfico: Figura 1: População mundial de suínos de produção industrial em 2018. Fonte: FAO, 2019. -/- G 1: Efetivo suíno mundial em 2018. FAO, 2019. G 2: 11 maiores países criadores de suínos em 2018. FAO, 2019. A elevada população de suínos no continente asiático é um indicador da importância que estes animais têm na alimentação dos habitantes dessa região. Na China, que possui o maior efetivo suíno do mundo, 440 milhões (FAO, 2019), os porcos estão geralmente incorporados sob sistemas integrados com a agricultura. O mesmo ocorre no Vietnã, onde a maior parte dos milhões de cabeças também estão em sistemas tradicionais de produção. Sobressaem, em importância, as raças Mong Cai, Thouc Nhieu e Ba Xuyen ambas com milhares e até milhões de exemplares cada uma. Na Indonésia, dados desatualizados obtidos por Aritonang et. al. 1993, a população de suínos chegou a 8,6 milhões de cabeças, e que esses porcos locais representavam mais de 95% da população de distritos como Deli Serdang, North Tapanuli e Nias em Sumatra. As raças asiáticas, com as suas múltiplas características, foram objeto, nos respectivos países, de programas especiais para melhorar a sua produção. Outros países, principalmente a França e os Estados Unidos da América, iniciaram estudos sobre as raças asiáticas com o propósito de aproveitar alguns fatores genéticos próprios destas, como a alta fertilidade. Na Europa, países como Portugal e Espanha, tentaram conservar alguns genótipos de raças locais. Segundo dados do Anuário Estatístico do Ministério da Agricultura (1985), citado por Paz Saez e Hernández Crespo (Sf.), a Espanha tinha em 1996 uma população suína local estimada em 1,5 milhões de cabeças das raças ibérica, celta, morcego e suas cruzes. As referências relativas à presença de suínos locais são escassas na África. Sarniguet, citado por D’Orgeval Dubouchet (1997), dava conta que em 1985 existiam apenas 564 porcos exóticos, o que põe em evidência a importância do rebanho local. No Burkina Faso (Kabore, 1996), a exploração de suínos ocupa o quarto lugar entre as explorações animais e, em 1994, contava com uma população de 552,3 mil cabeças, sendo ao dizer da autora, «a raça local de maior presença». Tal como noutros países, a informação é genérica e a maioria dos autores sustenta que os suínos locais apresentam uma grande variedade e que se distinguem em três tipos: pequenos, grandes e pesados. Os genótipos são de grande rusticidade e de baixa produtividade, mas de boa adaptação às mais variadas formas de manejo e sistemas de alimentação. A América Latina, conta com uma população significativa de porcos locais, provenientes dos porcos introduzidos por Colombo, em sua segunda viagem ao Novo Continente em 1493, e de outros que foram introduzidos posteriormente à medida que se generalizou a conquista do continente. Infelizmente, não existem dados precisos sobre a população de suínos locais em cada um dos países e os dados oficiais generalizam, quando sustentam que estas populações são «maioritárias». Na Colômbia, um trabalho realizado por C. Espinosa (comunicação pessoal em 1997) indica que o porco local, conhecido como crioulo ou "zungo" provém dos porcos ibéricos conhecidos como lisos ou pelados e que estes localizaram-se inicialmente no departamento de Córdoba e depois no resto do país. Demonstra que os suínos locais estão a desaparecer rapidamente em consequência da introdução de "raças modernas". No entanto, não se quantifica o seu número e sustenta-se que, até há algumas décadas, constituíam a maioria dos animais explorados pelos camponeses das regiões afastadas. Na Bolívia, Amurrio (1996) indica que, segundo o Instituto Nacional de Estatísticas, a população suína total era de 2,2 milhões de cabeças, que forneceram 25% da carne consumida. Embora não precise da população local, considera-se que este genótipo «é menor do que no passado» e que os animais que se encontram com maior frequência provém de cruzamentos com raças importadas. No Equador, os trabalhos realizados por Alvarado e Gómez (1982) e por Molina (1988-1995), põem em evidência que os rebanhos locais estão compostos em 50% dos casos por 1-4 mães e que contribuem com 25% da produção nacional de carne e com 30% da gordura. Iaso indica a sua importância na alimentação. Em um trabalho realizado por Benítez (1995), descobriu-se que no país existiam 2,1 milhões de suínos explorados no sistema tradicional, e que desta população tão somente de 3 a 5%, segundo a região, eram animais provenientes das raças ibéricas. Na zona central e no sul do país encontram-se genótipos provenientes dos suínos ibéricos conhecidos como «runas», «jungas» ou «crioulos». A população de suínos tende a aumentar em quase todos os países da América Latina como resultado dos cruzamentos entre as populações de raças ibéricas e as raças modernas. No Equador, há uma população de porcos de 2,7 milhões de cabeças (FAO, 2000). O Banco Central do Equador, no Boletim Anuário 19 (1997), assinala que em 1996 existiam 2,7 milhões de suínos e que produziram 36 mil toneladas de carne. Quanto ao Brasil, a deficiência de dados acerca do plantel de suínos locais é resultado das grandes críticas relativas aos sistemas de produção tradicionais e integrados. No entanto, dados obtidos pela FAO revelam que o efetivo total de suínos em 2018 foi de 38,8 milhões de cabeças, fazendo do país o quarto maior criador e produtor de suínos do mundo, gerando movimentação de toda cadeia produtiva de R$ 150 bilhões de reais, um produto bruto de R$ 62 bilhões de reais e 1,1 milhões de empregos diretos e indiretos (ABCS, 2016). É indiscutível que, pelas suas características zootécnicas e por terem sido explorados de maneira tradicional, sem investimentos maiores de tempo, recursos e tecnologia, os suínos locais não foram objeto de muitos estudos que permitam conhecer o seu verdadeiro potencial genético e a sua capacidade produtiva. -/- IMPORTÂNCIA DOS SISTEMAS DE PRODUÇÃO INTEGRADOS Desde os primórdios da civilização, o homem tem tentado obter alimentos suficientes. Infelizmente, em muitos países, por variadas razões, ainda há muita gente mal alimentada e que sofre com a fome. No início do século XXI, a subordinação afetou 800 milhões de habitantes e mais de 100 milhões têm uma alimentação desequilibrada (FAO, 1995). Enquanto, nos países industrializados, os excedentes produtivos tornam-se elementos desestabilizadores da economia e dão lugar à especulação. Geralmente, os animais, principalmente os monogástricos, são considerados como concorrentes do homem por recursos alimentares. Esquece-se que são também importantes transformadores de produtos e subprodutos não comestíveis diretamente pelos seres humanos e que uma adequada e racional exploração deles pode realizar-se a complementação das necessidades alimentares das populações. Os sistemas produtivos compreendem uma série de elementos que interagem com a finalidade de aumentar a produção. Os sistemas pecuários integram um território, as forragens e outros alimentos, as práticas, os rebanhos, as instalações, os recursos financeiros e a comercialização. Diversas espécies animais que coexistem na mesma exploração constituem subsistemas (Gibon, 1981). Os sistemas integrados de produção permitem a participação de diferentes espécies domésticas, incluindo os suínos. Sua capacidade de transformação digestiva assegura a eliminação, segundo Ensminger (1976), de até 36 toneladas de excrementos para cada 1.000 kg de peso vivo por ano, isto é, 3.600 kg anuais de excremento por animal de 100 kg. Por exemplo, um animal de 45 kg, peso aproximado dos porcos locais, elimina diariamente 3,5 kg entre fezes e urina, conforme Jensen (1974). Estes resíduos são de grande utilidade para manter a fertilidade dos solos, bem como para servir de alimento a espécies com grande poder de transformação como os peixes (Little e Edwars, 2001) e palmípedes, além de servir para o mercado de produção de gás através dos biodigestores. Nos sistemas tradicionais, a sua utilização adequada permitiu a exploração de sistemas integrados com várias espécies de peixes como a tilápia (Tilapia spp.), carpas (Cyprinus spp.) e peixes-gato (Clarias spp.). Segundo Holmess (1991), entre cinquenta e sessenta suínos produzem suficientes efluentes para satisfazer as necessidades alimentares de 20 mil a 50 mil peixes por hectare, com uma produção anual de 3,5 a 5,0 ton./ha/ano de peixes. Em algumas explorações, em particular nos países asiáticos, os suínos desempenham um papel importante nos sistemas integrados. Além de transformar produtos e subprodutos agrícolas e agroindustriais, suas excreções recicladas para a agricultura são utilizadas para gerar biogás em biodigestores (FAO). A energia produzida por este meio, satisfaz as necessidades das famílias tanto para a preparação de alimentos, usos artesanais e até mesmo aquecimento de moradias. Holnees (1991), sustenta que sete porcos são suficientes para produzir o biogás necessário como combustível para uma família de cinco membros. A necessidade de aprofundar-se em estudos relacionados com a integração de sistemas, é mais evidente se tiver em conta que os sistemas intensivos requerem um elevado investimento econômico e tecnológico, e que muitas vezes originam uma grande contaminação. Chirgwin et. al. (1997) expressam que no balanço de «eficiência» esses fatores se mostram pouco rentáveis, se considerar a «energia consumida em insumos e serviços requerida para gerar o produto». As experiências acumuladas nos países asiáticos (FAO), e em alguns outros países da África e da América Latina, mostram que os sistemas integrados de produção estão mais próximos de cumprir com os postulados universais de produzir para garantir um adequado nível nutricional da população, através da utilização de tecnologias que não alteram nem deterioram o ambiente. Não há dúvida de que ainda são necessários grandes esforços como o empreendido pela FAO, que permita a combinação de tecnologias, de programas sanitários, de produção e de marketing. A abordagem holística deve constituir a base de futuros programas para uma adequada utilização da energia para converter o porco, e outros animais, em transformadores de produtos e subprodutos com rendimento para a população humana. CONCENTRADORES DE NUTRIENTES A conformação gástrica do porco, em particular a estrutura anatômica do seu intestino e a sua qualidade de onívoro, permite-lhe consumir todos os tipos de alimentos. Dotado de um estômago com uma capacidade de armazenamento de 6 kg (para um porco de 100 kg), dispõe de um intestino delgado que pode atingir até 14 vezes o comprimento do corpo do animal e de um fígado volumoso que permite um adequado metabolismo, garantindo uma grande capacidade de transformação dos alimentos e de assimilação. Proporcionalmente, tem um intestino equivalente ao dobro do de um homem adulto (Serres, 1973). No porco, a baixa transformação do azoto inorgânico é compensada pela disponibilidade de uma variada e rica microflora intestinal, localizada ao longo do intestino, o que lhe permite uma excelente utilização de amidos e de gorduras, provenientes de cereais e leguminosas. Os porcos nos sistemas tradicionais, na maioria das vezes, recebem uma alimentação desequilibrada. No entanto, a sua rusticidade e o seu instinto de sobrevivência permitem-lhes encontrar uma dieta que assegure, além de sua mantença, a sua reprodução e produção, fornecendo energia e proteínas à dieta humana. Esta grande capacidade transformadora de alimentos é o que permitiu ao porco, de maneira ancestral e às novas raças, a integração nos sistemas industriais com grandes benefícios econômicos, como consequência da melhoria das taxas de conversão alimentar. SUÍNOS LOCAIS E A ECONOMIA RURAL A economia dos camponeses, em particular dos países em desenvolvimento, é majoritariamente rural, com disponibilidade de pequenas parcelas e onde os cultivos e as espécies animais exploradas são adaptadas às mais variadas condições climáticas. Nestas unidades de produção, a tecnologia utilizada é ancestral, os ciclos produtivos são regidos pelo costume, os calendários astrais de suas respectivas culturas e condicionados às condições climáticas. A tecnologia utilizada não foi inovada senão de uma forma muito parcial. Não são efetuados investimentos em fatores de produção externos e, muitas vezes, grande parte das colheitas perdem-se durante o armazenamento. Em muitos casos, apesar da grande variedade de culturas por parcela (CATER, 1982), a produtividade é baixa e apenas satisfaz as necessidades familiares com escassos remanescentes para ao câmbio ou «troca» e com uma quase nula disponibilidade de excedentes para a comercialização (Benitez et. al., 1987). A pecuária, nestas unidades de produção, caracteriza-se pela diversidade de espécies, entre as quais predominam os animais menores: porcos, cabras, galinhas, patos, e espécies autóctones, como os cuyes e camelídeos nos países andinos (Benitez, 1987), roedores como a capivara (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris) nos países amazônicos e pequenos ruminantes e roedores nos países africanos (Malaisse In. CIUF, 1987). Neste contexto, os suínos, alimentados com produtos e subprodutos provenientes da propriedade, com desperdícios de cozinha e de restaurantes, com resíduos de plantações industriais, de fábricas e mesmo das lixeiras das pequenas e grandes cidades, constituem-se na esperança econômica das populações de baixos rendimentos que assentam sua economia na possibilidade de economizar por este mecanismo (Benitez, 1995). Com o propósito de dispor de recursos para satisfazer urgentes necessidades derivadas de suas atividades religiosas, sociais e culturais, os moradores contam com pequenos rebanhos de animais de 1 a 4 matrizes (Alvarado e Gómez, 1982; Benitez, 1995), ou pequenos rebanhos de 2,5 animais em média (Proaño e Chávez, 1998), que são alimentados com os recursos alimentares locais. Quando os excedentes são suficientes, os pequenos produtores mantêm um ou mais animais para engorda, mas a grande maioria das crias é destinada à venda. Os suínos destinados a criação ou engorda são uma fonte de poupança para a família. As fêmeas em gestação, como os animais de acabamento, quando alimentados com milho ou com produtos regionais: banana, tubérculos, cana e outros produtos geralmente pobres em proteínas, tentam satisfazer as suas necessidades nutricionais escavando a terra em busca de raízes, insetos e pequenos animais ricos em proteínas. Os animais entram em engorda quando deixam de ser utilizados como reprodutores e os machos são, geralmente castrados. O ciclo de engorda ou de acabamento pode durar entre dois e quatro meses, dependendo da disponibilidade de alimentos, depois são destinados à venda em feiras ou na unidade de produção até onde chegam os intermediários e compradores. A vida média destes animais ultrapassa largamente um ano de idade e pode chegar aos sete e nove anos, como no caso dos reprodutores que são engordados quando terminam o seu ciclo reprodutivo. Em todo o caso, a poupança, a disponibilidade de gordura e de proteínas são a contribuição substancial para uma família de escassos recursos. ZOONOSES E ANTROPOZOONOSES Embora uma grande variedade de doenças parasitárias, bacterianas, virais, micóticas e até nutricionais possam afetar os porcos, sua curta vida produtiva faz com que estas tenham uma mínima expressão nos ciclos produtivos, principalmente quando são prestados os cuidados necessários. Está provado que os suínos, e outros animais explorados extensivamente, não são atacados por doenças infectocontagiosas como acontece nas explorações intensivas com densidades elevadas. No entanto, estas doenças podem existir, como foi o caso dos suínos ibéricos que sofreram da Peste Suína Africana com graves perdas nos rebanhos e na economia dos produtores. Somente um trabalho organizado e grandes investimentos do Estado permitiram sua erradicação e declarar a Espanha livre dela em 1995. No entanto, existem algumas doenças zoonóticas que merecem a atenção dos criadores para evitar o contágio, entre as quais destaco: 1. Enfermidades bacterianas Tuberculose: Tem como agente etiológico no homem o Mycobacterium tuberculosis, entretanto, algumas outras espécies como M. bovis, M. avium, M. intracelular e M. tuberculose, podem atacar o porco. M. bovis é a causa de até 90% da doença em suínos, produzindo lesões hiperplásicas a nível intestinal, inflamação na região orofaríngea e nos gânglios submaxilares. O contágio ocorre geralmente em contato com pessoas ou bovinos doentes, através de alimentos para animais, de resíduos alimentares de leitaria, de cozinha, de hospitais e de outros produtos contaminados. A vacinação nas áreas endêmicas reduziu a incidência desta doença. Brucelose: É uma doença generalizada em todo o mundo, causada pelas bactérias do gênero Brucella, do qual se conhecem seis espécies e múltiplos biotipos, sendo as mais difundidas: B. abortus, B. melitensis e B. suis, na sua ordem. Os suínos são atacados pela B. suis, principalmente, mas as outras espécies de brucelas podem também produzir a doença. Os animais são infectados no coito. Os sintomas são abortos e baixa fertilidade do rebanho. Os casos de artrite e a presença de nodulações, também podem ser indicadores da doença. Um reconhecimento atempado da doença e o destino adequado dos animais doentes pode evitar a presença de portadores e o contágio. 2 Enfermidades virais Febre aftosa: É uma doença que ataca o porco na sua qualidade de animal biungulado, produzida pelos vírus do genoma ARN, gênero Aphtovirus, com sete tipos: A, O, C; SAT1, SAT2, SAT3 e Ásia 1, facilmente modificáveis. Em todo o mundo, existem áreas que se livraram da doença com a vacinação, controles migratórios e abate de animais, principalmente. Entretanto, uma grande superfície do planeta fica sob observação permanente. A presença de vesículas na cavidade bucal, inflamação ou perda dos cascos e dificuldade ao caminhar, põem em evidência a doença. A introdução de animais contaminados e de produtos à base de carne pode acelerar a disseminação da doença, ao passo que a vacinação da maioria dos animais com a estirpe adequada evita as epizootias. 3. Enfermidades parasitárias Cisticercose: É uma parasitose associada às condições higiênicas e à pobreza, encontra-se em todos os países onde o porco é explorado de maneira tradicional. Os animais são infestados pelo consumo de excrementos de seres humanos contendo os embriões hexacantos da Taenia solium. Estes embriões, também conhecidos como óvulos, ao penetrar no intestino passam por via sanguínea aos diferentes músculos onde continuam seu desenvolvimento embrionário para logo se transformarem em cisticercos. A parasitose é assintomática nos porcos, mas podem-se palpar ou observar nodulações, in vivo, na língua do animal e em algumas ocasiões na pálpebra interna, enquanto que a inspeção, post morten, podem ser observados cisticercos na língua, coração, diafragma, masseteres, glúteos, dorsais e músculo psoas, principalmente. As pessoas adquirem a tênia consumindo carne parasitada na qual os cisticercos estão vivos. A teníase é a causa da terrível parasitose humana, conhecida como neurocisticercose, que é estabelecida como resultado do alojamento de cistos no cérebro humano, derme, epiderme e região ocular. Pode causar graves transtornos patológicos no homem e inclusive a morte. O portador de T. solium se converte no transmissor da neurocisticercose já que as proglotis da tênia adulta, que são expulsos em número de 3 a 7 diariamente, contêm entre 40 e 60 mil filhotes, que, por contato ou contágio de alimentos, podem ser transmitidos às pessoas. Em muitos casos, o fecalismo ao ar livre, ou próximo das vertentes de água, pode causar contaminação de porcos coprofágicos e das culturas, principalmente hortaliças ou outras de sistema radicular e caule curto. Triquinose: A triquinose do porco é produzida por um nematódeo conhecido como Trichinella spiralis. As pessoas são infestadas com carne de porco que contém larvas de triquina. As larvas entram no intestino onde amadurecem rapidamente e se reproduzem para depois, por meio dos vasos linfáticos, chegar aos músculos estriados onde se encapsulam. As larvas alojadas nos músculos lisos geralmente morrem. Os suínos são contaminados pelo consumo de resíduos de alimentos à base de carne contendo triquinas. A emaciação e a dor muscular das extremidades posteriores servem para dificultar o diagnóstico. Segundo Acha e Szyfres (1986), um porco de 100 kg parasitado pode infestar 360 pessoas. Estes autores também sustentam que a parasitose tende a desaparecer no mundo, sendo sua incidência, em muitos países europeus, inferior a 0,1%, e que em países como Brasil, Paraguai, Colômbia, Venezuela e Equador não se detectou esta parasitose. No caso equatoriano, os trabalhos realizados por Ayabaca e Vizuete (1997) confirmam a inexistência da doença no país. CONCLUSÃO A criação de suínos é de extrema importância para o mundo agropecuário. Seja nas criações de pequenos produtores, ou mesmo de grandes produtores, os suínos têm papel importante na obtenção de proteína para a alimentação humana, de emprego para milhões de pessoas, de renda, de produtos diversos, de gordura, de biogás etc. O sistema consorciado da criação de suínos com o meio agrícola é uma criação majoritária e presente em todos os países. Os suínos beneficiam o solo com suas excretas; o homem, por meio delas obtém o biogás necessário para produção de energia, de aquecimento etc. Milhões de camponeses criadores de suínos consorciados com outras culturas animais e vegetais, demonstram a eficiência da modalidade para o mundo contemporâneo e que podem, em muitos casos, obter renda necessária para sustento de suas famílias e da comunidade local. Todavia, vale salientar que os suínos tradicionais são resistentes à inúmeros agentes patogênicos, porém além de serem resistentes, a falta de higiene e profilaxia, além da medicina preventiva, podem ser cruciais para a disseminação da doença e morte total do plantel de animais. Os suínos produzem carne, produzem renda, produzem emprego, produzem a comunhão local, os suínos são animais peculiares, transformadores e contemporâneos. Pense, crie, recrie! (shrink)

Until recently, perdurantism has been considered to be incompatible with the presentist ontology of time. However, discussions about presentist theories of perdurance are now surfacing, one of the most prominent arguments for which being Berit Brogaard’s essay: “Presentist Four-Dimensionalism”. In this paper, I examine Brogaard’s argument in contrast to Ted Sider’s arguments for (an Eternalist theory of) the “Stage View”. I then argue for another (and, I think, novel) view of presentist perdurantism, which avoids the problematic consequences that Brogaard’s view (...) faces, and which also successfully solves philosophical puzzles without the difficulties that Sider’s view faces. This view, which I call “Stage View Presentism,” thus seems to be an appealing alternative for presentists who remain impartial to both the endurantist and the worm theories of persistence. (shrink)

Newly emerging neuroscientific evidence has important ramifications for the metaphysics of free will. In light of this new evidence, I examine the two most common notions of Libertarianism. I argue that advocates for both the agent-causation and causal indeterminist models of libertarian free will suppose a misguided depiction of what constitutes a free decision. In order to retain a consistent standpoint, I argue that libertarians must view the conscious decision-making process as one of an Architectural nature. Libertarians suppose (depending on (...) their notion) that humans are either the primary cause of their actions, or that they at least have the option to do otherwise. For either of these claims to be necessarily the case, I argue that libertarians must regard humans as having the ability to create their decisions. This ability is a requirement of the Architectural framework, which I explain in detail. I continue my case against libertarian free will, by demonstrating that the Architectural conception is also mistaken, and that the conscious decision-making process is instead one of an Archaeological nature. In this new paradigm, our conscious minds simply discover decisions, rather than create them. I show that both neuroscientific and philosophical evidence support this new model of conscious decision making and I examine how this Archaeological view of conscious discovery significantly undermines libertarian free will. (shrink)

We are developing the Neurological Disease Ontology (ND) to provide a framework to enable representation of aspects of neurological diseases that are relevant to their treatment and study. ND is a representational tool that addresses the need for unambiguous annotation, storage, and retrieval of data associated with the treatment and study of neurological diseases. ND is being developed in compliance with the Open Biomedical Ontology Foundry principles and builds upon the paradigm established by the Ontology for General Medical Science (OGMS) (...) for the representation of entities in the domain of disease and medical practice. Initial applications of ND will include the annotation and analysis of large data sets and patient records for Alzheimer’s disease, multiple sclerosis, and stroke. (shrink)

McDowell and Merleau-Ponty share a critical attitude towards a certain Cartesian picture of the mind. According to the picture in question nothing which properly belongs to subjectivity can be hidden to the subject herself. Nevertheless there is a striking asymmetry in how the two philosophers portray the problematic consequences of such a picture. They can seem to offer exact opposite views of these consequences, which, given the almost identical characterization of the transparency claim, is puzzling. I argue that a closer (...) look at the prima facie puzzling asymmetry dissolves the apparent disagreement and reveals a deeper agreement concerning both the nature and the origin of the problems haunting the Cartesian picture in question. Both McDowell and Merleau-Ponty argue that on the picture of the relation of between mind and world in question, we lose our grip on the very idea of a perceptual appearance. Furthermore, the two authors regard a certain conception of nature as conceived in the image of science, as one of the crucial elements in making the picture of the mind in question look attractive. (shrink)

Purpose. The purpose of this study is to investigate how professionals learn from varying experiences with errors in health-care digitalization and develop and use negative knowledge and digital ignorance in efforts to improve digitalized health care. Design/methodology/approach. A two-year qualitative field study was conducted in the context of a public health-care organization working with digital patient communication. The data consisted of participant observation, semistructured interviews and document data. Inductive coding and a theoretically informed generation of themes were applied. Findings. The (...) findings show that both health-care and digital communication professionals learn through experiences with digital “rule-” and “knowledge-based” errors in patient communication and develop negative knowledge and awareness of digital ignorance. In their joint efforts, they use negative knowledge to “bend the rules” and to explore digital ignorance in efforts to improve patient communication. Originality/value. This study provides insight into the importance of collaboration between professionals with varying experience of errors in digitalizing patient communication. Such collaboration is required to acknowledge own shortcomings and create complementary negative knowledge to improve digital patient communication. This is particularly important when working with innovative digitalization in health care. (shrink)

We have begun work on two separate but related ontologies for the study of neurological diseases. The first, the Neurological Disease Ontology (ND), is intended to provide a set of controlled, logically connected classes to describe the range of neurological diseases and their associated signs and symptoms, assessments, diagnoses, and interventions that are encountered in the course of clinical practice. ND is built as an extension of the Ontology for General Medical Sciences — a high-level candidate OBO Foundry ontology that (...) provides a set of general classes that can be used to describe general aspects of medical science. ND is being built with classes utilizing both textual and axiomatized definitions that describe and formalize the relations between instances of other classes within the ontology itself as well as to external ontologies such as the Gene Ontology, Cell Ontology, Protein Ontology, and Chemical Entities of Biological Interest. In addition, references to similar or associated terms in external ontologies, vocabularies and terminologies are included when possible. Initial work on ND is focused on the areas of Alzheimer’s and other diseases associated with dementia, multiple sclerosis, and stroke and cerebrovascular disease. Extensions to additional groups of neurological diseases are planned. The second ontology, the Neuro-Psychological Testing Ontology (NPT), is intended to provide a set of classes for the annotation of neuropsychological testing data. The intention of this ontology is to allow for the integration of results from a variety of neuropsychological tests that assay similar measures of cognitive functioning. Neuro-psychological testing is an important component in developing the clinical picture used in the diagnosis of patients with a range of neurological diseases, such as Alzheimer’s disease and multiple sclerosis, and following stroke or traumatic brain injury. NPT is being developed as an extension to the Ontology for Biomedical Investigations. (shrink)

The Neurological Disease Ontology (ND) is being developed to provide a comprehensive framework for the representation of neurological diseases (Diehl et al., 2013). ND utilizes the model established by the Ontology for General Medical Science (OGMS) for the representation of entities in medicine and disease (Scheuermann et al., 2009). The goal of ND is to include information for each disease concerning its molecular, genetic, and environmental origins, the processes involved in its etiology and realization, as well as its clinical presentation (...) including signs and symptoms. (shrink)

Mental and behavioral disorders represent a significant portion of the public health burden in all countries. The human cost of these disorders is immense, yet treatment options for sufferers are currently limited, with many patients failing to respond sufficiently to available interventions and drugs. High quality ontologies facilitate data aggregation and comparison across different disciplines, and may therefore speed up the translation of primary research into novel therapeutics. Realism-based ontologies describe entities in reality and the relationships between them in such (...) a way that – once formulated in a suitable formal language – the ontologies can be used for sophisticated automated reasoning applications. Reference ontologies can be applied across different contexts in which different, and often mutually incompatible, domain-specific vocabularies have traditionally been used. In this contribution we describe the Mental Functioning Ontology (MF) and Mental Disease Ontology (MD), two realism-based ontologies currently under development for the description of humanmental functioning and disease. We describe the structure and upper levels of the ontologies and preliminary application scenarios, and identify some open questions. (shrink)

The Ontology for Biomedical Investigations (OBI) is an ontology that provides terms with precisely defined meanings to describe all aspects of how investigations in the biological and medical domains are conducted. OBI re-uses ontologies that provide a representation of biomedical knowledge from the Open Biological and Biomedical Ontologies (OBO) project and adds the ability to describe how this knowledge was derived. We here describe the state of OBI and several applications that are using it, such as adding semantic expressivity to (...) existing databases, building data entry forms, and enabling interoperability between knowledge resources. OBI covers all phases of the investigation process, such as planning, execution and reporting. It represents information and material entities that participate in these processes, as well as roles and functions. Prior to OBI, it was not possible to use a single internally consistent resource that could be applied to multiple types of experiments for these applications. OBI has made this possible by creating terms for entities involved in biological and medical investigations and by importing parts of other biomedical ontologies such as GO, Chemical Entities of Biological Interest (ChEBI) and Phenotype Attribute and Trait Ontology (PATO) without altering their meaning. OBI is being used in a wide range of projects covering genomics, multi-omics, immunology, and catalogs of services. OBI has also spawned other ontologies (Information Artifact Ontology) and methods for importing parts of ontologies (Minimum information to reference an external ontology term (MIREOT)). The OBI project is an open cross-disciplinary collaborative effort, encompassing multiple research communities from around the globe. To date, OBI has created 2366 classes and 40 relations along with textual and formal definitions. The OBI Consortium maintains a web resource providing details on the people, policies, and issues being addressed in association with OBI. (shrink)

This essay centers on the notion of the symbolic and its impact as developed by Claude Lévi-Strauss in his Introduction to the Work of Marcel Mauss. I examine Lévi-Strauss’ formulation of the “floating signifier” and its influence in French thought, particularly in the work of Jacques Lacan and Jacques Derrida. In doing so, I argue that Lévi-Strauss’ notion may be a misreading of the structural linguistics of Ferdinand de Saussure that has important implications for contemporary political issues on the left (...) in both theory and practice. (shrink)

I argue that we find the articulation of a problem concerning bodily agency in the early works of the Merleau-Ponty which he explicates as analogous to what he explicitly calls the problem of perception. The problem of perception is the problem of seeing how we can have the object given in person through it perspectival appearances. The problem concerning bodily agency is the problem of seeing how our bodily movements can be the direct manifestation of a person’s intentions in the (...) world. In both cases what, according to Merleau-Ponty, obscures a recognition of the phenomenon in question is a conception of our bodily capacities, i.e. our sensibility and our motility, which reduces these to the workings of mechanisms that are blind to meaning. I argue that both the problem concerning perception and the problem concerning bodily agency can be properly called transcendental. The problem of perception is transcendental because it concerns the very intelligibility of appearances and judgements with empirical content. The problem of bodily agency is transcendental in the sense that it concerns the very intelligibility of our bodily capacity to carry out intentions and by implication the intelligibility of our intentions as such. (shrink)

This essay reads acclaimed poet James Galvin’s 1992 semi-autobiographical novel through the lenses of Martin Heidegger’s notion of authenticity and Patrick Wolfe’s discussion of settler-colonialism. I argue that Lyle, arguably the novel’s main character, is portrayed as living “authentically” in contrast to the deep inauthenticity of Ferris. I connect Western authentic dwelling with settler-colonial logic, centering my account on the figures of the “lazy” and “magical” “Indian.” Ultimately, I find that far from rejecting settler-colonial logic Galvin’s text plays out of (...) a return of the repressed of the present absence of indigenous persons in the land and the text. (shrink)

The translational research community, in general, and the Clinical and Translational Science Awards (CTSA) community, in particular, share the vision of repurposing EHRs for research that will improve the quality of clinical practice. Many members of these communities are also aware that electronic health records (EHRs) suffer limitations of data becoming poorly structured, biased, and unusable out of original context. This creates obstacles to the continuity of care, utility, quality improvement, and translational research. Analogous limitations to sharing objective data in (...) other areas of the natural sciences have been successfully overcome by developing and using common ontologies. This White Paper presents the authors’ rationale for the use of ontologies with computable semantics for the improvement of clinical data quality and EHR usability formulated for researchers with a stake in clinical and translational science and who are advocates for the use of information technology in medicine but at the same time are concerned by current major shortfalls. This White Paper outlines pitfalls, opportunities, and solutions and recommends increased investment in research and development of ontologies with computable semantics for a new generation of EHRs. (shrink)

Universal Energetic Field Theory -/- Additional Argumentation No1: Newton's Third Law relation with the Universal Energetic Field -/- The atom nucleus Quarks energy, and their three generations energy or energy gain, are too submit to the (Albert Einstein) “Law Of The Conservation Of Energy”. Thus, throughout the Quarks 3 generations energetic states and generations transformations, the Newton's Third Law impose the addition of the Universal Energetic Field theory. Martin B.J. Thibault December 2020 .

The New Evil Demon problem has been hotly debated since the case was introduced in the early 1980’s (e.g. Lehrer and Cohen 1983; Cohen 1984), and there seems to be recent increased interest in the topic. In a forthcoming collection of papers on the New Evil Demon problem (Dutant and Dorsch, forthcoming), at least two of the papers, both by prominent epistemologists, attempt to resist the problem by appealing to the distinction between justification and excuses. My primary aim here is (...) to critically evaluate this new excuse maneuver as a response to the New Evil Demon problem. -/- Their response attempts to give us reason to reject the idea that victims of the New Evil Demon have justification for believing as they do. I shall argue that this approach is ultimately unsuccessful, however much of value can be learned from these attempts. In particular, progress in the debate can be made by following those who advance the excuse maneuver and make explicit the connection between epistemic justification and epistemic norms. By doing so, the questions being debated are clarified, as is the methodology being used to attempt to answer them. (shrink)

In this article I argue that the value of epistemic justification cannot be adequately explained as being instrumental to truth. I intend to show that false belief, which is no means to truth, can nevertheless still be of epistemic value. This in turn will make a good prima facie case that justification is valuable for its own sake. If this is right, we will have also found reason to think that truth value monism is false: assuming that true belief does (...) have value, there is more of final epistemic value than mere true belief. (shrink)

What makes an intellectual virtue a virtue? A straightforward and influential answer to this question has been given by virtue-reliabilists: a trait is a virtue only insofar as it is truth-conducive. In this paper I shall contend that recent arguments advanced by Jack Kwong in defence of the reliabilist view are good as far as they go, in that they advance the debate by usefully clarifying ways in how best to understand the nature of open-mindedness. But I shall argue that (...) these considerations do not establish the desired conclusions that open-mindedness is truth-conducive. To establish these much stronger conclusions we would need an adequate reply to what I shall call Montmarquet’s objection. I argue that Linda Zagzebski’s reply to Montmarquet’s objection, to which Kwong defers, is inadequate. I conclude that it is contingent if open-mindedness is truth-conducive, and if a necessary tie to truth is what makes an intellectual virtue a virtue, then the status of open-mindedness as an intellectual virtue is jeopardised. We either need an adequate reliabilist response to Montmarquet’s objection, or else seek alternative accounts of what it is that makes a virtue a virtue. I conclude by briefly outlining some alternatives. (shrink)

The precarious rights of senior citizens, especially those who are highly educated and who are expected to counsel and guide the younger generations, has stimulated the creation internationally of advocacy associations and opinion leader groups. The strength of these groups, however, varies from country to country. In some countries, they are supported and are the focus of intense interest; in others, they are practically ignored. For this is reason we believe that the creation of a network of all these associations (...) is essential. The proposed network would act as a support for the already-existing policies of the United Nations’ High Commission for Human Rights, of independent experts, and of the Global Alliance for the Rights of Older People. All three have long ago recommended the creation of a recognized instrument for uniting presently scattered efforts. The proposed network, therefore, will seek to promote the international exchange of relevant expertise, and it will reinforce the commitments and actions that single countries are currently taking to meet these objectives. For example, informative public events can be organised to promote particular support initiatives and to provide an opportunity for new members of the network to be presented. The network will promote health for senior citizens, disease prevention, senior mobility, safe free time for seniors, alimentary education, protection against new risks and dangers, as well as equity in the services necessary for seniors to adopt new information and communication technologies. In the case of retired academic members, the network will promote equality with respect to continuing use of digital technologies (particularly email), continuing access to research libraries, and the guaranteed ability for seniors to fund their own research programs and to deliver free seminars. (shrink)

In addition to the notion of defeat, do we need to expand the epistemological repertoire used in accounting for the context dependence of justification? It has recently been argued that we ought to admit a hitherto unrecognized fundamental epistemic kind called ‘disqualifiers’. Disqualifiers are taken to be not reducible to any other epistemic notion. Rather, they are meant to be primitive. If this is correct, it is a surprising and novel discovery, and so it is worthy of further epistemological investigation. (...) In this paper I shall first argue that the cases given do not motivate positing the notion of a disqualifier. Conclusions drawn about the existence of disqualifiers do not follow from the considerations advanced. Second, I shall directly argue that an essential core claim of those who would posit disqualifiers, that so-called disqualifiers actually do prevent epistemic bases from conferring justification, is false. In sum, I shall argue that there are no disqualifiers. (shrink)

In common with traditional forms of epistemic internalism, epistemological disjunctivism attempts to incorporate an awareness condition on justification. Unlike traditional forms of internalism, however, epistemological disjunctivism rejects the so-called New Evil Genius thesis. In so far as epistemological disjunctivism rejects the New Evil Genius thesis, it is revisionary. -/- After explaining what epistemological disjunctivism is, and how it relates to traditional forms of epistemic internalism / externalism, I shall argue that the epistemological disjunctivist’s account of the intuitions underlying the New (...) Evil Genius thought experiment is at best incomplete. As presented, therefore, epistemological disjunctivism is unable to accommodate the core guiding intuitions of epistemic internalism. Given the stated aim of not being revisionary on this score, the view is at a dialectical disadvantage over the traditional forms of epistemic internalism the position is meant to replace. Unfortunately, therefore, at present, the impasse between internalism and externalism remains. (shrink)

In this paper, I argue that self-awareness is intertwined with one's awareness of possibilities for action. I show this by critically examining Dan Zahavi's multidimensional account of the self. I argue that the distinction Zahavi makes among 'pre-reflective minimal', 'interpersonal', and 'normative' dimensions of selfhood needs to be refined in order to accommodate what I call 'pre-reflective self-understanding'. The latter is a normative dimension of selfhood manifest not in reflection and deliberation, but in the habits and style of a person’s (...) pre-reflective absorption in the world. After reviewing Zahavi's multidimensional account and revealing this gap in his explanatory taxonomy, I draw upon Heidegger, Merleau-Ponty, and Frankfurt in order to sketch an account of pre-reflective self-understanding. I end by raising an objection to Zahavi’s claim for the primitive and foundational status of pre-reflective self-awareness. To carve off self-awareness from the self’s practical immersion in a situation where things and possibilities already matter and draw one to act is to distort the phenomena. A more careful phenomenology of pre-reflective action shows that pre-reflective self-awareness and pre-reflective self-understanding are co-constitutive, both mutually for each other and jointly for everyday experience. (shrink)

What is it to be a woman? What is it to be a man? We start by laying out desiderata for an analysis of 'woman' and 'man': descriptively, it should link these gender categories to sex biology without reducing them to sex biology, and politically, it should help us explain and combat traditional sexism while also allowing us to make sense of the activist view that gendering should be consensual. Using a Putnam-style 'Twin Earth' example, we argue that none of (...) the existing analyses in the feminist literature succeeds in meeting all of our desiderata. Finally, we propose a positive account that we believe can satisfy all the desiderata outlined. According to our theory, the genders 'woman' and 'man' are individuated not by their contemporary connections to sex biology, but by their historical continuity with classes that were originally closely connected to sex biology. (shrink)

According to Heidegger's Being and Time, social relations are constitutive of the core features of human agency. On this view, which I call a ‘strong conception’ of sociality, the core features of human agency cannot obtain in an individual subject independently of social relations to others. I explain the strong conception of sociality captured by Heidegger's underdeveloped notion of ‘being-with’ by reconstructing Heidegger's critique of the ‘weak conception’ of sociality characteristic of Kant's theory of agency. According to a weak conception, (...) sociality is a mere aggregation of individual subjects and the core features of human agency are built into each individual mind. The weak conception of sociality remains today widely taken for granted. I show that Christine Korsgaard, one of the most creative contemporary appropriators of Kant, operates with a weak conception of sociality and that this produces a problematic explanatory deficiency in her view: she is unable to explain the peculiar motivational efficacy of shared social norms. Heidegger's view is tailor made to explain this phenomenon. I end by sketching how Heidegger provides a social explanation of a major systematic concern animating Korsgaard, the concern with the importance of individual autonomy and answerability in human life. (shrink)

The acquisition of a new skill usually proceeds through five stages, from novice to expert, with a sixth stage of mastery available for highly motivated performers. In this chapter, we re-state the six stages of the Dreyfus Skill Model, paying new attention to the transitions and interrelations between them. While discussing the fifth stage, expertise, we unpack the claim that, “when things are proceeding normally, experts don’t solve problems and don’t make decisions; they do what normally works” (Dreyfus & Dreyfus, (...) 1988, pp. 30 – 31). This leads us to offer an account of the “perspectival deliberation” that arises for experts and masters and that is distinct from the calculative deliberation characteristic of the lower stages of skillfulness. (shrink)

In general, epistemic internalists hold that an individual’s justification for a belief is exhausted by her reflectively accessible reasons for thinking that the contents of her beliefs are true. Applying this to the epistemology of testimony, a hearer’s justification for beliefs acquired through testimony is exhausted by her reflectively accessible reasons to think that the contents of the speaker’s testimony is true. A consequence of internalism is that subjects that are alike with respect to their reflectively accessible reasons are alike (...) with respect to what they have justification to believe. Testimony should be thought no different: hearers that are alike with respect to reflectively accessible reasons to think that a speaker’s testimony is true are alike with respect to their justification for beliefs based upon that testimony. But it has been recently argued that this view faces powerful counterexamples. So the central question is this: assuming that a hearer can acquire justification to believe a proposition through the testimony of a speaker, can epistemic internalism provide the resources to explain how such justification is possible? My aim in this paper is to address these counterexamples, and in so doing, defend epistemic internalist accounts of testimony. (shrink)

We discuss recent progress in the development of cognitive ontologies and summarize three challenges in the coordinated development and application of these resources. Challenge 1 is to adopt a standardized definition for cognitive processes. We describe three possibilities and recommend one that is consistent with the standard view in cognitive and biomedical sciences. Challenge 2 is harmonization. Gaps and conflicts in representation must be resolved so that these resources can be combined for mark-up and interpretation of multi-modal data. Finally, Challenge (...) 3 is to test the utility of these resources for large-scale annotation of data, search and query, and knowledge discovery and integration. As term definitions are tested and revised, harmonization should enable coordinated updates across ontologies. However, the true test of these definitions will be in their community-wide adoption which will test whether they support valid inferences about psychological and neuroscientific data. (shrink)

Does the recent success of Podemos and Syriza herald a new era of inclusive, egalitarian left populism? Because leaders of both parties are former students of Ernesto Laclau and cite his account of populism as guiding their political practice, this essay considers whether his theory supports hope for a new kind of populism. For Laclau, the essence of populism is an “empty signifier” that provides a means by which anyone can identify with the people as a whole. However, the concept (...) of the empty signifier is not as neutral as he assumes. As I show by analyzing the role of race in his theory, some subjects are constituted in a way that prevents their unmediated identification with the people. Consequently, Laclau’s view should be read as symptomatic of the problems with populist logic if its adherents are to avoid reproducing its exclusions and practice a more inclusive politics. (shrink)

The current resurgence of interest in cognition and in the nature of cognitive processing has brought with it also a renewed interest in the early work of Husserl, which contains one of the most sustained attempts to come to grips with the problems of logic from a cognitive point of view. Logic, for Husserl, is a theory of science; but it is a theory which takes seriously the idea that scientific theories are constituted by the mental acts of cognitive subjects. (...) The present essay begins with an exposition of Husserl's act-based conception of what a science is, and goes on to consider his account of the role of linguistic meanings, of the ontology of scientific objects, and of evidence and truth. The essay concentrates almost exclusively on the Logical Investigations of 1900/01. This is not only because this work, which is surely Husserl's single most important masterpiece, has been overshadowed first of all by his Ideas I and then later by the Crisis. It is also because the Investigations contain, in a peculiarly clear and pregnant form, a whole panoply of ideas on logic and cognitive theory which either simply disappeared in Husserl's own later writings or became obfuscated by an admixture of that great mystery which is 'transcendental phenomenology'. (shrink)

This chapter first surveys general issues in the epistemic internalism / externalism debate: what is the distinction, what motivates it, and what arguments can be given on both sides. -/- The second part of the chapter will examine the internalism / externalism debate as regards to the specific case of the epistemology of memory belief.

In the wake of the advent of genome editing technology CRISPR-Cas9 (clustered regularly interspaced palindromic repeat (CRISPR)-associated protein 9), there has been a global debate around the implications of manipulating the human genome. While CRISPR-based germline gene editing is new, the debate about the ethics of gene editing is not – for several decades now, scholars have debated the ethics of making heritable changes to the human genome. The arguments that have been raised both for and against the use of (...) genetic technologies in human reproduction reiterate much of the arguments made in the pre-CRISPR debate. As such, it is instructive for South Africa to reflect on these arguments now, in considering our position on the regulation of the use of this novel biotechnology. There are two dominant schools of thought in this area, bioliberalism and bioconservatism. Bioconservatives raise concerns about the risks of genetic manipulation, and argue that it ought to be limited or prohibited to avert these risks to human health and human nature. Bioliberal scholars are more open to the prospect of genetic manipulation, because of its potential utility. In this article, I conclude that in liberal democracies such as our own, bioliberal arguments ought to be seriously considered when formulating policy on human genome editing because of the extent to which they resonate with our Constitutional values and human rights. I further suggest that there is a need for an enquiry into the relevance of African perspectives on the ethical questions that arise concerning germline genome editing. (shrink)

Epistemic internalism, by stressing the indispensability of the subject’s perspective, strikes many as plausible at first blush. However, many people have tended to reject the position because certain kinds of beliefs have been thought to pose special problems for epistemic internalism. For example, internalists tend to hold that so long as a justifier is available to the subject either immediately or upon introspection, it can serve to justify beliefs. Many have thought it obvious that no such view can be correct, (...) as it has been alleged that internalism cannot account for the possibility of the justification of beliefs stored in memory. -/- My aim in this paper is to offer a response that explains how memory justification is possible in a way that is consistent with epistemic internalism and an awareness condition on justification. Specifically, I will explore the plausibility of various options open to internalists, including both foundationalist and non-foundationalist approaches to the structure of justification. I intend to show that despite other difficult challenges that epistemic internalism might face, memory belief poses no special problems that the resources of internalism cannot adequately address. (shrink)

This article considers recent arguments against the proposition that one and the same object cannot go out of existence and then come into existence again (so that, e.g., teleportation would involve change of identity.). It argues that these arguments can be evaded by adopting a four-dimensional ontology, according to which human beings, trees, etc., have temporal as well as spatial parts.

We discuss recent progress in the development of cognitive ontologies and summarize three challenges in the coordinated development and application of these resources. Challenge 1 is to adopt a standardized definition for cognitive processes. We describe three possibilities and recommend one that is consistent with the standard view in cognitive and biomedical sciences. Challenge 2 is harmonization. Gaps and conflicts in representation must be resolved so that these resources can be combined for mark-up and interpretation of multi-modal data. Finally, Challenge (...) 3 is to test the utility of these resources for large-scale annotation of data, search and query, and knowledge discovery and integration. As term definitions are tested and revised, harmonization should enable coordinated updates across ontologies. However, the true test of these definitions will be in their community-wide adoption which will test whether they support valid inferences about psychological and neuroscientific data. (shrink)

In 2035 global egg demand will have risen 50% from 1985. Because we are not able to tell in the egg whether it will become a male or female chick, billons of one day-old male chicks will be killed. International research initiatives are underway in this area, and governments encourage the development of an alternative with the goal of eliminating the culling of day-old male chicks. The Netherlands holds an exceptional position in the European egg trade, but is also the (...) only country in the European Union where the downside of the egg sector, the practice of killing day-old male chicks, is a recurrent subject of societal debate. ‘Preventing the killing of young animals’ and ‘in ovo sex determination’ are the two alternative approaches available to solve this problem. It is clear that both approaches solve the problem of killing day-old male chicks, either by keeping them alive or by preventing them from living, but they also raise a lot of new animal welfare-related dilemmas. A thorough analysis was undertaken of these dilemmas and the results are presented in this article. The analysis resulted in an ethical framework based on the two main approaches in bioethics: a consequentialist approach and a deontological approach. This ethical framework was used to develop an online survey administered to ascertain Dutch public opinion about these alternative approaches. The results show that neither alternative will be fully accepted, or accepted by more than half of Dutch society. However, the survey does provide an insight into the motives that are important for people’s choice: food safety and a good treatment of animals. Irrespective of the approach chosen, these values should be safeguarded and communicated clearly. (shrink)

Early Heidegger argues that a “homogenous space of nature” can be revealed by stripping away the intelligibility of Dasein's everyday world, a process he calls “deworlding.” Given this, some interpreters have suggested that Heidegger, despite not having worked out the details himself, is also committed to a notion of deworlded time. Such a “natural time” would amount to an endogenous sequentiality in which events are ordered independently of Dasein and the stand it takes on its being. I show that Heidegger (...) was indeed committed to such a temporal realism even though his treatment of these issues is somewhat scattered and pulled in different directions. In the course of my reconstruction, I renew an interpretation of Heidegger that stresses Dasein's thrownness into nature and I answer William Blattner's powerful interpretation of Heidegger as a failed temporal idealist who was unable to derive the sequentiality of ordinary time from Dasein's non-sequential originary temporality. Heidegger did not attempt to derive sequentiality; instead, he understood it as a built-in feature of the natural universe by which Dasein's activities are constrained. World-time turns out to be a co-production of Dasein's non-sequential originary temporality and the endogenous sequentiality of events in nature. (shrink)

This paper provides an interpretation of the existential conception of selfhood that follows from Merleau-Ponty’s account of perception. On this view, people relate to themselves not by “looking within” in acts of introspection but, first, by “looking without” at the field of solicitations in which they are immersed and, eventually, in Merleau-Ponty’s words, by “making explicit” the “melodic unity” or “immanent sense” of their behavior. To make sense of this, I draw out a distinction latent in Merleau-Ponty’s view between a (...) pre-reflective sense of self and a reflective self-interpretation. The former is a suite of abilities and dispositions in light of which a person is aware of and drawn to act in a situation. This sense of self undergoes transitions over time, is constitutively susceptible to moments of disorientation, and tends toward but never achieves full coherence. Reflective self-interpretation is an activity whereby someone—provisionally and defeasibly—clarifies, articulates, and gets a better “grip” on how they are prereflectively drawn to act. I ground this interpretation in a detailed reading of Merleau-Ponty’s treatment of romantic love and I corroborate it by examining his account of the emergence of class-consciousness in the self-interpretation of a worker. (shrink)

Both Martin Heidegger and Harry Frankfurt have argued that the fundamental feature of human identity is care. Both contend that caring is bound up with the fact that we are finite beings related to our own impending death, and both argue that caring has a distinctive, circular and non-instantaneous, temporal structure. In this paper, I explore the way Heidegger and Frankfurt each understand the relations among care, death, and time, and I argue for the superiority of Heideggerian version of this (...) nest of claims. Frankfurt claims that we should conceive of the most basic commitments which practically orient a person in the world and define his identity (“volitional necessities”) as naturalistic facts, foundational for and located completely without the normative space of reasons. In support of this he appeals to the supposedly foundational role played in human life by the instinct for self-preservation, what Frankfurt calls the “love of living.” The claim is that in questions of practical identity there is a definite priority of the factual over the normative. Frankfurt’s naturalistic model of volitional necessity is motivated by a misunderstanding of the temporal structure of care, a misunderstanding that helps lead him to an implausible conception of the basic structures of human identity. Heidegger advances an anti-naturalistic conception of caring, one bound up with his way of understanding how human beings relate to their own future. I argue that the existential, temporal, and normative significance that Frankfurt attributes to the naturalized “love of living” is better captured by the Heideggerian claim that human identity is defined by being “for-the-sake-of” certain projects and commitments, a way of being lived out in the way Heidegger calls “being-towards-death.”. (shrink)

A carne bovina é uma das proteínas mais consumidas no mundo, favorecendo o comércio exterior. O Brasil é um dos grandes exportadores desse produto, o que leva à importância de buscar meios para se obter maior eficiência reprodutiva e produtiva. Dentre esses métodos, o uso de Inseminação Artificial em Tempo Fixo (IATF) vem aumentando e com isso vem a busca por estratégias para alcançar melhores taxas de prenhez. Uma estratégia é avaliar a nutrição do animal em conjunto com a condição (...) corporal. Assim a proposta desse trabalho é verificar a influência do Escore de Condição Corporal (ECC) na taxa de prenhez em vacas Nelore submetidas à IATF. O estudo foi realizado em propriedade particular no município de Cacoal, Rondônia, com 150 vacas da raça Nelore, multíparas, com idade média de 5 anos, submetidas ao manejo de pastejo semi-intensivo. Foram separados dois grupos sendo, grupo A: 75 vacas com escore ≥ 3,0 e grupo B: 75 matrizes com escore ≤2,5. Ambos passaram pelo mesmo protocolo farmacológico, dividido em três etapas (D0, D8 e D10). A inseminação artificial foi realizada no D10 e após 30 dias as vacas dos dois grupos passaram pelo diagnóstico de gestação, por ultrassonografia. Os resultados demonstraram que a taxa de prenhez do grupo A (68%) foi maior que a do grupo B (40%), sendo relevante a preocupação com o ECC de vacas Nelore em protocolos de IATF. (shrink)

We presuppose a position of scientific realism to the effect (i) that the world exists and (ii) that through the working out of ever more sophisticated theories our scientific picture of reality will approximate ever more closely to the world as it really is. Against this background consider, now, the following question: 1. Do the empirical theories with the help of which we seek to approximate a good or true picture of reality rest on any non-empirical presuppositions? One can answer (...) this question with either a 'yes' or a 'no'. 'No' is the preferred answer of most contemporary methodologists -- Murray Rothbard is one distinguished counterexample to this trend -- who maintain that empirical theories are completely free of non-empirical ('a priori') admixtures and who see science as a matter of the gathering of pure 'data' obtained through simple observation. From such data scientific propositions are then supposed to be somehow capable of being established. (shrink)

(Added April 2023: This draft is superseded by Briggs, R.A., & George, B.R. (2023). 'What Even Is Gender?'. Routledge. DOI 10.4324/9781003053330, and in particular by the first three chapters thereof. While this much earlier draft remains available for archival purposes, you are encouraged to read and cite the 2023 book and to use its terminology.) -/- This paper presents a new taxonomy of sex/gender concepts based on the idea of starting with a few basic components of the sex/gender system, and (...) exhausting the possible types of simple associations and identities based on these. The resulting system is significantly more fine-grained than most competitors, and helps to clarify a number of points of confusion and conceptual tension in academic and activist conversations about feminism, transgender politics, and the social analysis of gender. (shrink)

In The Realm of Reason (2004), Christopher Peacocke develops a “generalized rationalism” concerning, among other things, what it is for someone to be “entitled”, or justified, in forming a given belief. In the course of his discussion, Peacocke offers two arguments to the best explanation that aim to undermine scepticism and establish a justification for our belief in the reliability of sense perception, respectively. If sound, these ambitious arguments would answer some of the oldest and most vexing epistemological problems. In (...) this paper I will evaluate these arguments, concluding that they are inconclusive at best. Despite offering some interestingly original arguments, Peacocke gives us no reason to think that scepticism is false, and that perception is generally reliable. (shrink)